History the Struggle for Independence in East Africa

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THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN EAST AFRICA

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EAST AFRICA

Nationalism refers to the rise of consciousness and love for ones country. In Africa, it was the desire for independence, self determination and common hatred to all evils associated with colonial rule.

In East Africa, nationalism was characterized mainly by rise or formation of political parties (UPC, DP, and in Uganda, KANU, KADU in  KENYA, and TANU in Tanzania) and the popular demand for independence.

Characteristics of African Nationalism in East Africa

Nationalism in East Africa was characterized by a number of features which included:-

• It was characterized by rise of political parties. These included Uganda National Congress (which later became- Uganda Peoples’ Congress (U.P.C), Democratic Party (DP)  and Kabaka Yekka (KY)  all in Uganda, Tanganyika African National Union (TANU in Tanganyika , KADU ( Kenya African Democratic Union) as well as KANU ( Kenya African National Union) in Kenya, among others.
• Nationalism in East Africa was led by the few educated Africans such as Julius Nyerere, Milton Obote, Mayanja Nkangi, Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya, and others.
• Most of the nationalist activities were centered in towns like Nairobi, Mombasa, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Kampala and Entebe.
• Violent groups were formed to engage the colonialists by force. The most important of these was Mau Mau in Kenya ( 1952-1956)
• There were constant arrests and detention of nationalists’ leaders. Kenyatta was imprisoned in 1953, Obote forced out of Makerere College, Nyerere and many others too were detained several times.
• Nationalism in East Africa had some Africans supporting the whites and hence opposed to ideas like granting independence to Buganda.
• The cold war conflict remained clear among the East African nationalists. Nyerere for instance adopted the socialist ideology through his popular Ujamaa policy.
• The press became a key tool of nationalism in East Africa. News papers like MUNNO, Ngabo ( Uganda), radio stations, magazines were used in the spread of nationalist ideas.
• Negotiations also characterized African nationalism in east Africa. Constitutional reforms were carried out such as the new constitutions in Kenya like the Lennox-Boyd constitution.
• Trade unions were formed to call for workers rights. For example the Young Kikuyu Association in Kenya in 1921.
  
  FACTORS FOR THE RISE AND GROWTH OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM IN EAST AFRICA.
• The colonial policies led to the growth of African nationalism in East Africa. Evils of colonialism such as forced labor, over taxation, land alienation, racial discrimination and forced growing of cash crops etc. made the people of East Africa hate the colonial masters.
• Western education led to the rise and growth of African nationalism. The few Africans who went to schools like King’s college Budo acquired a common language – English. This made communication very easy between the nationalists of different races.
• The Second World War also encouraged African nationalism. This war which started in 1939 and ended in 1945 trained some East Africans on how to use guns,  exposed them to military weakness of the whites and also exposed Africans to ideas of democracy from American soldiers.
• The rise of two new super powers in the world promoted African nationalism. USA and USSR started supporting political parties like UPC, TANU and KANU struggling for independence.
• The formation of the United Nations in 1945 favored African nationalism. UNO put pressure on Britain to grant independence to Tanganyika, Uganda and finally to Kenya.
• The Atlantic charter of 1941 helped nationalism in East Africa. W. Churchill (Britain) and F. Roosevelt (USA) called for the respect of people’s rights to choose a government of their will. This increased desire for independence in East Africa.
• The 1945 Manchester Pan African conference helped African nationalism. Delegates including Nkrumah etc called for states to use all means to fight against colonialism.
• The formation of political parties also encouraged nationalism in East Africa. Parties like KANU, KADU (KENYA) TANU (TZ) UNC UPC, DP, and KY (Uganda) mobilized the people in demanding for independence.
• The Mau Mau uprising of 1952 – 56 in Kenya encouraged nationalism in East Africa. The courage of the Kikuyu and other fighters against the British had attracted more demand for independence even in Tanzania and Uganda.
• The rise of able and charismatic leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta , Julius Nyerere, Milton Obote, Abu Mayanja and others. These led the masses in popular demonstrations and rallies demanding for independence
•  The development of the press
• Emergence urban centers such as Kampala, Nairobi, Entebe etc.
  
  NATIONALISM IN TANGANYIKA
  Contribution Of Dr. Julius Nyerere To The Struggle For Tanzania’s Independence
  Julius Kambarage Nyerere was born in 1922 at Butiaba near the lake Victoria shores. His father was a village chief. He attended a Roman Catholic primary school before joining the government secondary at Tabora and diploma in Education at Makerere College in Uganda before finally attaining university education in universities outside Africa including Edinburgh University in Scotland.
  Nyerere taught in several schools in Tanzania between 1945 and 1952. This spread literacy, which was needed in the struggle for independence.
  He joined TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) in 1955 where he seriously campaigned for Tanganyika’s independence.
  He addressed the U.N.O’s (United Nations Organization) trusteeship council in New York, where he expressed Tanganyika’s wish for independence.
  Organized TANU to elect a representative to the Legislative council (LEGCO).
  Nyerere became Tanganyika’s first prime minister in 1961 when Tanzania gained her independence.
  He encouraged the unity between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. This resulted into the establishing of the republic of Tanzania.
  Emphasized Swahili language to be the common language Tanzanians were to use. This united them in the demand for independence.
  Nyerere advocated for peaceful means in the struggle for Tanzania independence. This scared Tanzania of the destruction that happened to states that used violence to achieve independence.
  Nyerere as president of Tanganyika African Association transformed (IAA) into TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) in 1954.
   Nyerere called for adult voting rights voting rights in Tanganyika other than the earlier restriction on to only those who were earning 75 pounds per year or those who were literate.
  Nyerere assured the Asians, whites and other foreigners in Tanganyika that they had a future in Tanganyika. This won some foreigners sympathy towards the independence movement.
  Brought TANU close to the UN Trusteeship Council. It’s this that was later to put pressure on Britain to decolonize Tanganyika.
  Nyerere stood down after being elected to the Legico (Legislative Council) complaining of lack of progress in the move to Tanganyika’s independence.
  Reasons for Tanganyika’s early independence
  1.The formation of political clubs/ associations such as Tanganyika African  
     Association (TAA), Tanganyika African National Union ( TANU).
  2.The spirit of unity that came as a result of the existence of an all embracing Political party- TANU.
  3.The personality of the colonial governors favored Tanzania’s early independence. Governor Richard Turnbull for example encouraged preparations for Tanzania’s Independence.
  4.The United Nations, supervised preparations for independence in Tanganyika through its Trusteeship Council.
  5.Racial or tribal differences were greatly limited in Tanganyika unlike in both Uganda and Kenya. This gave Tanganyikans a united stand in the call for independence.
  6.Political activities were not much restricted by the authority in Tanganyika as was in Kenya and Uganda. Party activities for instance would be left free.
  7.Tanganyika’s adoption of Kiswahili as a common language promoted unity in the call for independence.
  8.The able leadership of men like Julius Nyerere who mobilised all Tanganyika’s without discriminating based on race. 
  NATIONALISM IN UGANDA
  Between 1945 and 1949, several protests and uprisings were organized especially in Uganda’s towns like Kampala. These were mainly in opposition to the monopoly of Asians in the cash crop trade, land alienation among other grievances.
  Such action resulted into formation of earlier political associations such:-
• Bataka party (1946)
• Abaganda  Abakopi and Uganda African Farmers’ Union (1947)
• Buganda African Motors Driver Union(BANU)

Although all these parties were silenced one by one by the colonialists, and their leaders arrested, the message of resistance and desire for independence had been expressed already.

The Kabaka crisis of 1953 -55.

Following the British introduction of the idea of the East African Federation Kabaka Mutesa II decided to mobilize the Baganda to reject the Federation. He also went ahead to demand for the independence of Buganda alone.
This prompted the British colonial governor Andrew Cohen to deport him into Britain on the 30 Nov 1953.

Causes of the crisis

1. The idea of the East African federation led to the crisis. The Baganda feared that they might loose their land in the federation as had happened in Kenya.
2. Mutesa I‘s failure to cooperate with the colonial administrators encouraged the crisis. According to the 1900 agreement, the Kabaka was expected to work (cooperate) with the colonial administration in areas of tax collection, law and order e.t.c.
3. Mutesa’s demand for Buganda’s independence also led to the crisis.
4. Kabaka Mutesa’s desire to adjust some terms of the Buganda agreement led to the crisis. Kabaka hated the clauses that limited his authority in Buganda.
5. The rising sense of superiority among the Baganda encouraged the crisis under Mutesa I. Buganda increasingly proud of themselves that decided to reduce cooperation with the colonialist.
6. Withdraw of support from the Kabaka by the Lukiiko also encouraged the crisis.
7. The transfer by the colonial governor of the nomination of Buganda’s representatives to the Legico (Legislative council). This decision to give powers to the Lukiiko to nominate representative to the legico provoked Mutesa II much.
8. The religious conflicts with in Buganda also increased the tension. The Catholics conflicted with the Protestants and Christians combined against Muslims. This drew in the colonial administration to take sides.
9. The new political parties such as Uganda National congress (1952) violently opposed the East Africa Federation idea. This further promoted the government to exile the king.

Effects of the 1953 Kabaka crisis.

1. Created a sense of unity among the Baganda as they combined efforts to demand for the return and restoration of Kabaka Mutesa II.
2. Led to the signing of the Namirembe agreement. This cleared way for the return of the Kabaka while also reducing the king’s powers more.
3. Demonstrations were carried out in Buganda areas like Nakulabye. Men vowed never to shave off until their king in back.
4. The colonial government appointed more Africans to the colonial administration.
5. Encouraged the growth of nationalism in the whole of Uganda. The crisis had showed Ugandans the determination of colonialists to stay on hence more demands for independence.
6. Led to formation of new political parties which began by demanding of the return of Kabaka and finally for independence.
7. The crisis and the Namirembe agreement affected the position of the Kabaka. His reduced powers as we approached independence laid ground for his eventual over throw in the 1966 crisis with Obote .M.
8. The idea of East African Federation was completely ruled out after the crisis.
9. Increased the popularity of the Kabaka especially among the Baganda as well as other areas of Uganda.

Political parties in Uganda after 1950.

A number of political parties were formed or old ones revised after 1950. These were to lead the way towards Ugandan’s independence by 1962. Such parties included

1. Uganda National Congress (UNC) 1952.
2. Democratic party(DP)1954
3. The Progress Party (PP) 1955
4. United Congress Party(UCP) 1957
5. Uganda National Movement (UNM) 1959
6. Uganda People’s Union (UPU) 1958
7. Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) 1960
8. The Kabaka Yekka (KY) 1962.

Role played by political parties in the struggle for Uganda’s independence.

1. Parties trained leaders who helped to mobilize the masses in the demand for independence.
2. They sensitized and educated Ugandans on the politics in the country. This aroused political awareness in Uganda.
3. Called for independence of Uganda raising Massive support to the independence movement.
4. Organized peaceful demonstrations, against colonial policies like taxation , cash crop growing (forced) etc.
5. Parties sent representatives in the pre- independence negotiations and last minutes constitutional preparations.
6. Mobilized funds to finance political activities including campaigns for the pre- independence elections.
7. Party slogans and songs became a key symbol of attraction for large gatherings. This made flow of information about the struggle very easy.
8. Recruited the youths into active party service thus training a generation that was to lead Uganda to independence such as Mayanja Nkangi , Ignatius Musaazi .etc.
9. Violent action organized by the various parties pressurised the colonialists to grant independence. Boycotts, attacks on foreigners and torching (burning) houses all speeded up the process to decolonize Uganda.

Factors which facilitated the attainment of independence in Uganda.

Many factors worked in favour of the rise and growth of nationalism in Uganda. It’s these factors that eventually led to the early independence of Uganda by 1962. They included:

1. The impact of the Second World War (1939-1945) led to Uganda’s independence. Ex – soldiers came back with military skills and militant ideas leading to violent action like burning of white owned houses.
2.  The rise of labour party into power in Britain in 1945 also forvoured Ugandan’s struggle for independence. This led to the appointment of some Ugandans on the Legico.
3. The Manchester Conference of 1945 helped nationalism in Uganda. Its call for use for use of all means including force to fight for independence led to use of strikes in demanding for independence.
4. Western education (especially through missionary schools) trained leaders for the independence movement. Eg Musazi, M. Obote , Mayanja Abu
5. The roads, railway line and other form of infrastructure proved by the colonial administration helped the struggle. Nationalists like Obote used these to traverse the whole of Uganda for support.
6. The formation of political parties led to independence. Parties like KY, UPC, DP UNC mobilized the masses in the demand for independence.
7. The continued exploitation by Asians and whites of Uganda’s resources like copper in Kilembe provoked anger among Ugandans.
8. The development of urban centers such as Jinja, Kampala favored nationalism in Uganda. These became bleeding grounds for political activities like rallies and demonstrations.
9. Asian countries like India which had already got independence (1947) helped Uganda too. Some Ugandan nationalist like Abu Mayanja, Bidandi Sali e.tc. Studied in India or attended conferences there.
10. The 1952 revolution in Egypt also influenced nationalism in Uganda Nasser , the new president of Egypt assisted Ugandans like Ignatius Musaazi of UNC (Uganda National Congress)
11. The United Nations organization also put pressure on British to decolonize even Uganda.
12. The British policy of favoring Buganda more than the rest of Uganda. This made the rest of Ugandan’s unite against the Baganda first and finally the colonialists too.
13. Ghana’s early independence in 1957 also inspired strong demand for independence in 1957 also inspired strong demand for independence in Uganda too.

Major obstacles in the struggle for Uganda’s independence

The struggle for Uganda’s independence and generally the growth of African nationalism in Uganda was delayed/ disturbed by a number of factors.

1. The high levels of illiteracy in Uganda affected the struggle. The few educated people Uganda had by 1945- 50 were mainly centered around Buganda only. This left the rest of the regions off the struggle for so many years.
2. Lack of a common language in Uganda also disturbed the struggle for independence. Luganda ,Acholi and other languages were used by different groups to push for their tribal interests. This promoted the divide and rule policy of the colonialists
3. Trade Union activities were limited in Uganda. The restrictions by colonialists had discouraged formation of trade unions which would have helped in the demand for independence.
4. The limitations on the press delayed the struggle. The few news papers such as “Uganda Eyogera” were in Luganda hence only read by Baganda. This isolated the other Ugandan’s from ideas in the paper.
5. Some of the elites were puppets of the British colonial government and hence could not join political paties like UNC, UPC etc.
6. The delay to establish contacts between nationalists in Uganda and outside Africa also delayed the struggle. Very few Ugandans had traveled to democratic states like USA to borrow the spirit of freedom and hence few would challenge colonialism as an abuse of human rights.
7. The formation of political parties too delayed independence. Active party politics did not come until after 1950.
8. Religious divisions between Protestants and Catholics also affected the struggle. Parties never combined efforts because of the differences in religion.
9. The common hatred towards the Baganda by nationalist from other parts prevented a united stand against colonialism. The fact that the British had used Baganda chiefs like Semei Kakungulu to speed colonial rule to the East made Baganda a target by others.
10. The secessionist attempts by Buganda delayed the struggle. With much of the infrastructure, the attempt to break off the rest of Uganda was unacceptable by other nationalist hence preventing a common front against colonial rule.
11. There were also ideological differences even within the different political parties. Where the DP leaders had capitalist sentiments, UNC and UPC were pro- socialist. They thus never combined efforts against the British because of such differences.
    

    ACTIVITIES

    ACTIVITY:  1
    Quotations from Mwalimu J K Nyerere
    "Having come into contact with a civilization which has over-emphasized the freedom of the individual, we are in fact faced with one of the big problems of Africa in the modern world.
    Our problem is just this: how to get the benefits of European society -- benefits that have been brought about by an organization based upon the individual -- and yet retain African's own structure of society in which the individual is a member of a kind of fellowship."
    “No nation has a right to make decisions for another country; no people for another people”
    “If a door is shut, attempts should be made to open it; if it is a jar, it should be pushed until it is wide open”
    “If real development is to take place, the people have to be involved”
                 Julius Kambarage Nyerere as quoted in the New York Times Magazine on 27 March 1960.
    TASK:
    i) Learners should read the quotation from Mwalimu J K Nyerere in groups.
    ii) They should list down the outstanding values and principles that Nyerere stood for as revealed in these quotations.
    iii) Learners should mention the values and principles from the quotation that would apply to them if they were to live a successful life.
    
    ACTIVITY:    2
    Organize a class discussion on the causes of crises in Uganda. In that discussion, the following should come out clearly:
12. Learners should be able to define or describe a crisis from their own experience in life.
13. They should state the different familiar examples of crises in Uganda .
14. Learners should suggest the possible causes of the crises they listed in (ii) above.
15. Learners should suggest ways to addressing the many crises Uganda is facing today.

ACTIVITY : 3

Divide the class in groups and ask them to make a list of things that they would do to show love and care for their nation, then, discuss the list with them.

ACTIVITY : 4

Task learners to give a written presentation of what they would do for their people if they were given a public office. 

This may not be more than 100 words.   Then, discuss  with them their views.

Revision Questions.

1.  a) Explain the causes of the Kabaka crisis of 1953-55

     b) Suggest ways of addressing the many crises Uganda is facing today

2. a) Why was Tanganyika African National union formed?

     b) Explain the contribution of TANU to the history of Tanganyika.

3.  a) What problems did political parties in E. Africa face before independence?

    b) Describe the achievements of either Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) or Kenya
    African National Union (KANU) by 1965.

• 
  

History European Imperialism in East Africa

http://www.elateafrica.org/elate/history/europeanimperialisminea/europeanimperialintro.html
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN EAST AFRICA

 Causes of Scramble and partition of East Africa

The main causes of the scramble and partition of East Africa were Economic, Social, Humanitarian, Prestigious, Strategic, and political as follows:

The Europeans wanted to spread their western civilization and this was the western culture.  This included the way of dressing, religion, education and administration since Africa was previously referred to as ‘The Dark Continent’.

They wanted to spread Christianity in East Africa so as to check on the spread of Islam by Arabs. 

By the end of the 19th century there was an industrial revolution in Europe and therefore the Europeans were looking for raw-materials to feed their industries e.g. Cotton, coffee, Minerals like Gold, Copper, Diamond, Tin etc and animal products like ivory, hides and Skins.

The Europeans also wanted to obtain market for their manufactured goods like clothes, Guns, Beads, Glass Ware etc.

They wanted to invest their surplus capital in East Africa for high profits.  They invested their capital in mining and farming.

The Europeans were overpopulated and therefore wanted to get new areas in East Africa where they could resettle their surplus population.

They were also interested in East Africa to get territories for prestigious purposes because the more territories a European power had, the more it would be considered powerful e.g. France.

Unemployment in Europe prompted the scramble and partition of East Africa.  Machines replaced human labour thus creating unemployment.  There was a need to acquire colonies where their people could be employed.

The rise of nationalism in Europe caused scramble and partition of East Africa.  European countries developed national pride in superiority over others.  Therefore possession of colonies became a symbol of superiority. For example Germany and Italy were moved by that influence. 

Strategic reasons also led to the scramble and partition of East Africa.  Following the construction of the Suez Canal, Britain realised that Egypt could not survive on its own without the Nile; she therefore colonized Sudan and Uganda.

Europeans wanted to pursue their humanitarian motive of stopping slave trade in East Africa, Which was considered an inhuman act.

Some East African tribes were hostile to the early Europeans for example explorers, missionaries and traders. They therefore wanted to protect them in East Africa by taking full control. 

The Effects of Scramble and Partition in East Africa

East Africa was divided among the European powers i.e. Britain and Germany.  The British took up Uganda and Kenya which was the northern part of East Africa and Germany took Tanganyika which was the southern part of East Africa.  The effects include the following:

The East African states lost their independence and were subjected to European rule and administration e.g. Kenya and Uganda in were in the hands of the British while Tanzania was controlled by the Germans. 

Many African chiefs or kings were killed or sent into exile because of the scramble and partition in East Africa for example Kabalega and Mwanga were exiled while chief Mkwawa of the Hehe was beheaded for resisting German colonial rule in Tanganyika.

They established new systems of administration i.e. indirect rule by the British and direct rule by the Germans.
The Africans were regarded as an inferior group and were forced to provide labour for European plantations and other public works.

There was an increase of Europeans in East Africa for example many of them settled in the Kenya highlands. Thus Africans lost their land and were put into reserve camps e.g. the Masai.

After the partition, new boundaries were drawn and defined in East Africa without respect of the tribes which led to disunity of Africans.

Slave trade was completely wiped out and replaced with legitimate trade in East Africa.
Scramble and partition accelerated the construction and development of infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, roads and bridges. 

There was maximum exploitation of resources in East Africa like Ivory, Minerals like Gold, Copper, and Cash crops like Cotton, Coffee, and Sisal etc.

Agriculture was promoted and developed and some of the cash crops which were introduced like cotton and sisal became the export base of East Africa.  They also introduced new methods of farming.

They developed legitimate trade, which enabled them to get raw materials for their industries and they sold their products to East Africans.

They promoted the western culture in East Africa for example the way of dressing, religion, building, eating habits etc.

They undermined African cultures who took up the western culture and goods.  Africans therefore developed an inferiority complex as their traditional customs were despised and they took up the European culture as their way of life.

Taxes were introduced to be paid in form of money for example hut tax and gun tax, which encouraged the use of money.

Western formal education was introduced which replaced informal African education.

Administrative centres/posts were built in East Africa for example in Kampala, Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam.

Christianity was introduced and spread in East Africa whereby many people were converted from Islam to Christianity.  Various churches were also constructed in East Africa.

Methods used to establish colonial rule in East Africa.

After the partition and scramble for East Africa, the British and Germans used various methods in East Africa.  However, these methods varied from place to place and from time to time as follows:

The European colonialists used Christian missionaries who paved the   way for colonisation by preaching the message of love and brotherhood which convinced the African that it was a sin to fight against the Europeans.

The signing of treaties and agreements with African chiefs was another method used by Europeans to colonise East Africa for example the 1900 Buganda agreement, the Masai agreement of 1804, and several other agreements.  These assisted the British to establish their rule.

They used African collaborators and opportunists to conquer and annex areas that were resistant to colonialists’ rule for example Apollo Kagwa and Semei Kakungulu.

 The use of explorers or adventurers for example Speke and Stanley who gave exaggerated reports to their home governments based on lakes, minerals climate and mountains, which later attracted colonialists.

Colonialists used the method of divide and rule for example by introducing different religions such as Catholics, Protestants and Moslems etc.  This created disunity against the enemy.

The European colonialists also used the European settlers for example in the Kenya highlands.  These settlers introduced agriculture, which generated funds for their colonial governments.

They built communication lines for example the Uganda Railway which facilitated the movement of the British troops from the coast to the interior.  These were later used to put down rebellions.

They used bribery to make the chiefs and kings of East Africa convinced toward their colonial policies. 

The colonialists used the army of occupation to establish their rule in East Africa.  This was effective in the areas of Bunyoro where the British used the army of occupation.  In other words they used military confrontations for example Kabalega of Bunyoro was attacked by the army and the Germans attacked the Hehe.

They built administrative posts and forts for defensive purposes against African resistors.

They used chartered companies to establish colonial rule in East Africa for example IBEACO.

The European colonialists also used gifts to the African leaders like chiefs and kings to persuade their people to accept colonialism.

They used force to suppress resistance all of which maintained law and order. 

History External Contacts and Pressures

http://www.elateafrica.org/elate/history/externalcontacts&pressure/externalcontactsintro.html
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EAST AFRICA  

Reasons for the coming of christian missionaries in East Africa

Missionaries came to East Africa for various reasons. These were economic, social, humanitarian and economic in nature as explained below; 

The missionaries had the ambition to spread Christianity to the people of East Africa. This would be through preaching and teaching the holy gospel so that many would get converted to Christianity.

They wanted to fight against slave trade in East Africa. Earlier travelers like John Speke and James Grant, H.M. Stanley, Dr. David Livingstone and others had reported about the evils of slave trade in East Africa. Christian missionaries therefore came with an intention to stop it and introduce legitimate trade.

Missionaries wanted settle the freed slaves in East Africa by setting up resettlement centers both in the interior and at the coast for example at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa.

They wanted to check on the spread of Islam in East Africa from the coast with intentions of converting many to Christianity.

Some missionaries came because they had been invited by certain African chiefs, For example, Muteesa I of Buganda wrote a letter through H.M Stanley   inviting missionaries to Buganda.

They came to establish legitimate trade in East Africa. They, for instance wanted to trade in items like glass, cloths, etc. as Dr. Livingstone told Cambridge University students, “I go back to Africa to make an open pass for commerce and Christianity…..” Similarly, his speech in 1857 emphasized the unity between Christianity and Commerce.  

 The missionaries also loved to adventure and explore the interior of East Africa. For example Dr. John Ludwig Kraft of CMS is said to have been the first European to see Mt. Kenya while Johann Redman was the first to see Mt. Kilimanjaro.

They had a mission to clear the way for the colonization of East Africa. The missionaries were tasked by their home governments to preach ideas of love, respect, brotherhood, forgiveness, tolerance and non violence so that when the colonialists come, they would meet less resistance from the East Africans.

It’s also argued that missionaries wanted to “civilize” East Africans. They argued that they came to stop some of the barbaric acts and customs e.g. Female Genital Mutilation among the Kikuyu in Kenya, human sacrifices and the practice of killing twins.

They had interest of reducing tribal conflicts in East Africa. E.g. conflicts between Buganda and Banyoro would be resolved with the coming of the Missionaries.

Early contacts by travelers like Stanley, Speke and Grant, among others encouraged missionaries to come. The information they gave about important places like the source of the Nile, fertile soils, river falls and the climate all attracted the missionaries into East Africa.

The expulsion of some of the missionaries from other parts of Africa led them into East Africa.  For example Johann Ludwig Kraft and Johann Redman are said to have been expelled from Ethiopia around 1842 before they chose to relocate to East Africa. 

Reasons for the success of missionary work in East Africa

The missionaries’ success was noted in the economic, political and social fields and these are discussed as follows:

• The evils of slave trade made East Africans welcome missionaries as liberators. Their campaign against slave trade won them much support from different tribes in East Africa.

• The support they got from some of the local chiefs and kings led to their success. For instance Muteesa I of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi all gave them protection as well as rights to do their work in their territories.
• The earlier explores helped to map out potential areas of East Africa for smooth missionary work. For instance, H.M Stanley had identified Buganda as a hospitable community for the missionaries and they were later welcomed by the Kabaka of Buganda in 1877.
• The support missionaries got from their home governments led them to success.  This was inform of finance and physical manpower for instance colonial governments  gave protection to the missionaries whenever they were challenged by local chiefs or other threats. For instance Captain Lugard supported the Protestants in the religious wars in Buganda.
• Some missionary groups sought for alliances with African chiefs. Such treaties of friendship made their work easy since the chiefs would call on their subjects to take on the missionary teachings.
• The missionaries’ efforts to translate the bible into several local languages helped them succeed for example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and a Grammar book.
• The developments that missionaries found in societies like Buganda favored their work. For example, infrastructure around Buganda areas like Namirembe, Lubaga and Kampala in general made missionary work of putting up schools, hospitals and churches easy.
• The industrial revolution had provided such technology like the printing press which made printing of bibles and other academic work easy.
• Their efforts in life saving services like medical care (Quinine) won them great admiration among the people of East Africa that few were ready to oppose them.
• The missionaries’ practical skills enabled them to survive even when their supplies from home delayed. They for instance adopted agriculture as soon as they settled anywhere. This ensured steady supply of food.

• They employed locals as porters, interpreters, cooks or security guards hence winning the loyalty of many.
• The death of Dr. David Livingstone in 1873 and other earlier missionaries increased the determination by many groups to see missionary work succeed in Africa, and East Africa in particular. E.g. the London news paper wrote after his death, “the work for Africa must hence forth begin in earnest where Livingstone left it off.”
• Establishment of resettlement centers for freed slaves e.g. at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa where skills like carpentry, and agriculture were taught. Such communities thus looked at missionary work as “a life- saving mission”
  

  Role of christian missionaries in the colonisation of East Africa

• Missionaries signed treaties which were later used by colonialists to take over colonies e.g. Tucker, a British Missionary interpreted the 1900 Buganda Agreement to the regents of Kabaka Daudi Chwa II. This led to loss of political, economic and social powers to the British protectorate government. Sir Harry John stone who signed on behalf of the British government confessed that;
• “I John stone shall be bound to acknowledge the assistance offered to me by the missionaries especially the CMS. Without their assistance on my side, I do not think Uganda’s chiefs would agree to the treaty which practically places their country and land in the British hands”.
• (From partition of Africa by Prof Sempebwa).
• Missionaries supplied information to the colonialists which they utilized to plan how to effectively impose their colonial rule on how to crash the African resistance. In the religious wars in Buganda, the British fought behind the Protestants. Colonel Saddler a British commander once said;
• “The CMS was the first in the field …. Its connection with the political history of early days, the difficulties, it successfully surpassed and the assistance it rendered to the colonial government at the time of the rebellion are too well known to need recapitulation. There has been complete accord between the colonial government and Christian missionaries and in no single instance has there been a friction of any kind. I would wish to thank them for willing fully placing at my disposal a fund of information they have regarding the country and its people”.
• In fact there was a reciprocal relationship between missionaries and the colonialists that is why missionaries laid the ground work before the partitioners offered missionaries protection for the success of their evangelization mission. It’s here that words Reverend Willis are partnent;
• “We as missionaries are indebted to the presence of the colonial government in this country and we would not forget when we reckon upon the triumph of the cross in Uganda. In how large a measure, these victories have been paved for us by others in the colonial government with its officers around us. We owe a peaceful country”.
• The Church missionary society managed to raise enough funds for Imperial British East African Company for its staying in Uganda for at least 2 or more years. The church missionary society and Captain Lugard viewed that the company’s withdraw would live the British and the protestant party in a dangerous position versus Moslems.
• Missionaries enhanced the growth of tropical raw materials like coffee, cotton to satisfy the British industrialists urge but disguising everything in Christianity. Bishop K. Boroup for example introduced cotton in Uganda.
• They appealed to their home governments for protection in case of attack. It is in this light that Britain came to Uganda during the religious wars of 1884-1892 and later occupied Uganda.
• They created a collaborating class by luring it religiously and materially. This class helped colonialists to fight resistors despite the fact that they were all Africans.    
• In their evangelization role, they brain washed Africans with biblical teachings as “love your neighbor as you love yourself”, “blessed are the humble for the kingdom of God is theirs”, etc. With these preaching’s they made potential resistance important.
• Religion was a mechanism of divide and rule. The converts and the non-converts hated each other which caused division to the advantage of the Europeans.       
• Collaboration with chattered companies, European Christian missionaries and their converts worked hand in hand with the Imperial British East African Company to defeat Kabalega’s resistance.
• Missionary stations served as military bases from where the European colonial forces launched attacks on the resisting Africans. African Lugard used old kampala hill as a military base against Kabalega.
• Mission stations served as colonial government headquarters. The established mission infrastructure was used to help in the establishment and sustenance of European colonial rule. 
• Colonialists lacked skilled manpower, so the missionaries by design or accident were very faithful servants of the colonial government i.e. they were Colonial government servants.
• They created a peaceful atmosphere for the germination of colonialism in areas of hostility. This is because they emphasized the centralized leadership where peace and obedience were expected.
• Missionaries also trained manpower through introduction of education which was used by colonialists. This was done through teaching those academic subjects and manual skills like use of a plough and how to grow coffee. 
• They acted as interpreters e.g. Tucker in the 1900 Buganda agreement. 

• Through conversion of the Buganda chiefs and pages before Buganda commoners it meant that each party i.e. the Church Missionary Society and France had gained converts. This was a political security of sympathy to the Christian missionaries as against the Kabaka in Buganda’s leadership. This indirectly undermined the Kabaka’s authority and respect i.e. his traditional power base was being eroded.
  

  Activities of christian missionaries in East Africa

• Christian missionaries carried out a number of activities in East Africa. Their activities had various impacts on the social, political and economic conditions of East Africa. The following were the activities carried out by the Christian missionaries in East Africa.
• Missionaries carried out evangelization. Here they tried to convert and baptize many people into Christianity from their paganism and Islam.
• Christian missionaries carried out linguistic research and came up with new developments in language. Dr Kraft for example translated the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and grammar hence making it easy for people to understand the Bible more.
• The Christian missionaries built many churches in East Africa many of which are still in existence. They for example set up a church at Zanzibar, Rubaga and Rabai missionary station near Mombasa. .
• They carried out exploration work into the discovery of various East African physical features. For example, Kraft was the first European to see Mt. Kenya in 1849 while Rebman was the first to European see Kilimanjaro in 1848. 
• Christian missionaries set up stations for free rehabilitation services for example in 1868 the Holy Ghost Fathers set up a home for the free slaves at Zanzibar.
• Christian missionaries participated in opening up various mission stations. Such mission stations could help in enhancing evangelization into the local population. For example Rebman set up one at Rabai near Mombasa.
• Christian missionaries participated in skill development in East Africa. They for example participated in modernizing Agriculture and carpentry by setting up agricultural institutions and carpentry workshops for training.
• Christian missionaries were also influential in establishing educational institutions and training efficient class of African clergy (catechists) who were close and more understandable to the local communities. This helped and enhanced the propagation of faith.
• Christian missionaries were at times involved in political processes that were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. They for example participated in the overthrow of Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda.
  

  Problems faced by missionaries in East Africa Christian missionaries in East Africa were faced with various problems which clipped their activities at times. These include: They faced the problem of language barrier. This was because East Africa had a multiplicity of languages hence rendering communication between the missionaries and the local people very difficult.   There was a problem of the influence of Islam. Arabs being the first group of people to arrive at the coast and interior had deep rooted Islam into the people thus making it difficult for the people to easily adopt Christianity. For example, by the time Sir Edward Frere arrived in East Africa (1873) Rebmann had only 6 converts. Existence of tropical diseases was yet another problem faced by the Christian missionaries. Tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, claimed many missionary lives thus making progress in their activities very difficult since they could be left very few in numbers. Another hardship was caused by geographical barriers. These included hilly areas, rivers, lakes and forests. These hindered their free movement to various places thus a threat to their activities. Divisions and quarrels between various missionary groups for example Catholics versus Protestants was a hindrance to their activities. This could create divisions and biases among the believers thus weakening their capacity to convert more converts. Poor transport was a hindrance to the missionary activities in East Africa. This was due to undeveloped roads at the time to help in the movement of missionaries from one place to another. Presence of hostile tribes in East Africa was also a problem that faced Christian missionaries. The Nandi and Masai who believed that strangers were not supposed to pass via their land could attack and kill many missionaries thereby reducing their numbers compared to the increasing number of converts. The presence of wild animals was also a threat to the missionary activities in East Africa. Man enters in Tsavo National Park consumed and threatened many whites. This clipped their activities at times. The missionaries faced the problem of lack of supplies. They for example lacked enough money, accommodation and drugs. This was because they originated from very far (Europe) thus making it difficult for them to have full time and constant supplies. Such put their lives at risk and could sometimes lead to death. The Christian missionaries faced the problem of stiff contradiction and rivals between European missionaries and traditional Africans. Customs like polygamy, satanic worship, etc were deep rooted into African communities which proved a threat for the missionaries to successfully uproot them. The missionaries made their work difficult by involving in politics and judicial systems which were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. Local leaders could misinterpreted them as political rivals and organize their masses for resistance against missionary activities.  Effects of missionaries in East Africa They spread Christianity and baptized many converts. Catechists were also trained who helped in the spread of Christianity for example, in Uganda by 1911 many people had been converted and many cathedrals and churches were built like the Kikuyu churches (Charismatic Arathi or spirit churches.) African religious beliefs, culture and traditions were despised and demoralized for example the birth and murder of twins, human sacrifice. They established hospitals and clinics which offered modern medicine plus research in tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, yellow fever and sleeping sickness which had claimed many lives. For example Dr Albert Cook built Mengo hospital. They introduced the European system of management and styles of dress and architecture which have been adopted by many people in East Africa today. They put to an end the inter-tribal or inter-village wars and established a stable and peaceful society under one faithful leader (centralization). They studied African languages and translated the Bible into various languages. For example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili, Bishop Edward Steere based in Zanzibar learnt and studied Swahili and translated books from English to Swahili, published the New Testament and the entire Bible in 1891. They established printing presses like Marianum press and published newspapers. They opened up primary and secondary schools as well as training collages for teachers and trade schools for craftsmen e.g. Kisubi Vocational School, Kiteredde Brothers in Masaka. In the technical schools, carpentry and brick laying skills were obtained.         A new class of elite emerged. Africans educated mainly in English and French emerged, these later served as doctors, lawyers, clerks, teachers, catechists, agriculturalists and priests who played a great role of spreading Christianity. For example, in 1890, Africans were ordained as priests of the University Mission to Central Africa in Tanganyika.  They paved way for the improvement of agriculture through establishing experimental farms and plantations where new crops, better methods of farming and equipment  were introduced for example cotton was introduced by Kenneth Boroup in 1903 and Africans were taught how to use a plough and how to grow coffee. Missionaries improved communication and transport which in turn led to the opening up of the hinterland of Africa. The building of strong boats and ships gave Europeans courage to travel far from home. Missionaries destroyed local industries like craft industry e.g. blacksmiths, pottery work were all destroyed and replaced with European products e.g. manufactured items like cups, saucepans, etc. They contributed to the rise of nationalism. This was made possible through education where the African elite emerged and started demanding for independence e.g. Tom Mboya, Obote, Nyerere, and Kenyatta.   They fought slave trade which was later abolished and equality and liberty for all was encouraged in East Africa. Mission stations were developed in towns like Rabai missionary station near Mombasa in 1846 Bagamoyo, Tabora, etc.

History Mau Mau Uprising

http://www.elateafrica.org/elate/history/maumau/maumauintro.html
The Mau - Mau Uprising 1954

COURSE OF THE MAU-MAU MOVEMENT

Due to the failure of the Devonshire White paper to solve African problems, Africans started forming underground movements. Up to 1944 a European missionary represented Africans on the Legislative council.  The Kenyan population broke down into secret societies on tribal and   tradition basis.
 After 1945, a number of political groups were formed some of which led to the
formation of the Mau-Mau. The group that spearheaded this was that of the dissatisfied ex-soldiers known as the “FORTY GROUP” in 1946.They began by organizing opposition of European policies e.g. stopping the kikuyu from terracing their land.
 The group was then joined by the other groups and formed one called “Kenya Land and Freedom Army”. In 1946, they got in touch with Kenyatta after he had returned from Britain, he was the leader of the Kenya African Union (KAU) (after James Gichuru) and this organization was later called Mau-Mau.
 The rebels had many demands from the government but most important of all was independence for all Kenyans and a return of land grabbed by the Europeans. Kenyatta as KAU (Kenya African Union) leader had kept in touch with the local leaders and their activities and later became their leader. Although he tried to get national support for the party, it remained predominantly Kikuyu and failed to gain significantly beyond the central province. The Europeans became hostile to Kenyatta’s political activities and even threatened to deport him.

By 1948 the legislative council membership had 4 Africans and African demand for independence was growing. However, the colonial government felt that it needed more of their guidance. In 1950 the KAU extremists and the ex-soldiers lost patience and the movement became violent.
Basing their underground movements in Nairobi, they made plans for direct action using forceful traditional oath practices promising to oust the settlers, obey their leaders and keep secrets under threat of death.
They attacked European and Asian shops and businesses so as to get guns and disappeared into forests to wedge guerrilla warfare against the Europeans.
In 1951 the Mau-Mau was declared unlawful by the government due its acts of violence. In 1952 the Mau-Mau made bases in the Aberdare forests and Mt. Kenya spreading their hostile activities over the highlands, rift valley region and Nairobi.
They attacked European farms, raided villages for food and murdered those they thought were loyal to the government. Diplomatic or constitutional means employed to stop the Mau-Mau by peaceful means failed.
Governor Sir Evelyn Baring realizing that the Mau-Mau fighters were a potential danger declared a state of emergency on 28th October 1952. More armed forces were brought into action and British troops flown into Kenya to control the situation but without success. Many suspected leaders of the Mau-Mau were arrested e.g. Tom Mbotela the vice president of the KAU and a Nairobi City Councilor was assassinated. Several villages were burnt down in the Lari massacre.
In April 1953 Kenyatta was arrested with his colleagues, he was tried and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment after being found guilty of managing and directing the Mau-Mau activities. In June 1953 KAU was banned. Despite the arrest of its members, its activities continued.
In 1954 many members of the Kikuyu were rounded up in Nairobi and forced into special emergency villages or camps partly for their own protection and partly to stop them from contacting the rebels.
In January 1956, Itote popularly known as ‘General China’ a prominent military leader of the Mau-Mau was captured and executed and in October the same year, Dedan Kimathi was also killed.
By 1960 the movement had broken down due to conflicts over leadership and shortly after came to an end.
The rebellion became a path for the future independence of Kenya which was later achieved on 12th December 1963.

WHY DID THE MAU-MAU TAKE LONG TO END?

• Africans were using guerrilla warfare based in Abedare mountains and mountain Kenya making it difficult for the government to suppress them.
  
• The rebels adopted good military strategies and spy network as the majority were ex-soldiers.
  
• They had been able to acquire guns, which gave them military advantage.
• The British were depending on the Africans, some of whom were secret members of the Mau-Mau. The Africans were forced to take traditional oaths, which unified them.
  
• The availability of able leaders like Jomo Kenyatta and General China.
  
• African determination gave them courage to persist for a long time.

WHY WAS THE UPRISING SUPPRESSED/ REASONS WHY THE
RESISTANCE FAILED

• Some Africans allied with the British. These included the brain washed Africans who called themselves ‘good Christians, law abiding citizens of Kenya’, and African chiefs who were appointed by the British. These collaborated with the British and defeated the Africans.
  
• The resistance was affected and weakened by the removal of African strong leaders through detention,imprisonment and executions for example, in April 1953, Jomo Kenyatta was arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment.
• The British were better-equipped and better fighters. Militarily the British had superior weapons although the Africans had the zeal to fight they used locally made weapons to execute their cause as compared to the British who had armoured trains, guns and automatic tracing equipment like Binoculars. This partly explains why the Mau Mau was defeated.
  
• There were disagreements among the political parties in the later stages of the rebellion. The lack of a single mass political party that would have spearheaded the struggle for example, Kenya African National Union (KANU) which comprised of the Kikuyu and Luo advocated for a military government while Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) dominated by the Kalenjin and Coastal Bantu tribes advocated for a central government. These disagreements and quarrels partly explain the defeat.
  
• The eventual death of Mau Mau commanders led like General China and Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi led to its defeat. These two had been the most experienced soldiers who had participated in the Second World War and knew well the weakness of European soldiers. Worse still, their death by public hanging served to frighten many Africans from joining the Mau Mau.
  
• They had no enough food as they did not have time to engage in farming.  The food stores where burnt by the colonial government so the fighters had to survive by feeding on bitter roots, fish and wild game. Such a diet greatly demoralized them.
  
• A part from forcing them to unite, the idea of forcing Africans to take an oath was disadvantageous to some extent since some people were not faithful.
  
• The British were constantly re-enforced by their home governments.
  
• Africans fought single handedly, for example the British were constantly provided with food, ammunition and clothing. The British police could frequently be flown into Kenya to help the Kenya African riffles in disorganizing the Mau Mau movement.
  
• Banning of political parties in Kenya weakened Mau Mau movement. After the British realizing that political violence towards the Africans had failed to contain the strength of the guerrilla movement, they banned KAU and political leaders like Kenyatta were imprisoned. The party supporters threatened to withdraw their support while the combatants at the front lost the morale to fight. Such confusion could not yield any victory to the Mau Mau fighters.
  
• The determination of the British to calm down the rebellion. They used violent approaches to weaken the Mau Mau further for example, the government detained the Africans in reserves and this reduced the level of interaction amongst the Africans. The leaders of the uprising such as General China were publicly hanged, Jomo Kenyatta who was so influential was detained for seven years. This weakened the uprising which was defeated by 1956.

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT TO SUPPRESS THE UP RISING

At first it was regarded as a minor rising, so it deployed the police who were using the King’s African Rifles. On realizing that this strategy had failed, the then governor, Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergency and more troops were sent in from Europe as step one.
All political parties were abolished and Kenyatta and other prominent leaders suspected of being the key leaders of the movement were arrested. In April 1953, Kenyatta was sentenced to a term of seven years imprisonment.
Having got rid of the prominent leaders, government troops headed for the forests where serious fighting ensued. Meanwhile, a number of Kikuyu were rounded up and taken to special emergency camps in various areas, example, Nairobi, Embu, Meru
In 1954, government organized more raids in Nairobi area and rounded up more than 26,000 Kikuyu and also moved to other areas, like Kamba, Embu, Meru and so on.

Besides rounding up the Kikuyu, in Nairobi, the government also came for the Kikuyu who were studying at Makerere University.
In that same year (1954) General China was also arrested .His real name was Waruhiu Itote. He was captured and sentenced to death.  He was leading the struggle from Mt. Kenya.

Another leader, Dedan Kimathi who had continued with the struggle after General China was also captured and sentenced to death in 1956.After their capture, the struggle begun declining. However, fighting continued until 1960 when government declared that the emergency was over.

EFFECTS/RESULTS OF THE MAU-MAU RISING

• Many people lost their lives which led to depopulation. 100 Europeans and 2000 Pro-British Africans lost their lives. Over 10,000 energetic men were killed and this massive loss of productive labor led to economic decline in Kenya after 1956.
  
• The Kenyans were allowed to participate in the Legislative council in large numbers. In 1958, a constitution (Lennox) was drawn which provided for 15 members of African representation to the council and therefore members like Arap Moi ,Oginga Odinga ,Tom Mboya joined  the legislative council who became influential  in the independence struggle.
  
• Kenyans became involved in various economic activities as equal partners from which they had been excluded .They were allowed to grow profitable crops like coffee, tea, cotton from which they obtained profits and improved their standards of living.
  
• It led to the formation of political parties. Due to the increased constitutional reforms and increased education, African elite emerged and these formed strong political parties which included Kenya African National Union. (KANU) Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU). These parties strongly advocated for Kenyan Independence.
  
• It led to the leaders of the Mau-Mau and many people being arrested and detained in prison for a long time hence their suffering and misery  for example Jomo Kenyatta detained for seven years and Dedan Kimathi.
• The activities of the Mau Mau uprising put pressure on the colonial government to the extent that Kenya got her independence in 1963. The colonial government was forced to undertake social, economic as well as political reforms. In 1958, constitutional reforms were adopted which quickened the way to multi-racial form of government in Kenya. For the first time the Africans were included in the local and national politics in Kenya.
  
• The uprising led to the exodus of many white settlers in Kenya and the plans to make Kenya a white man’s country became futile. After 1956, all parts that were racially restricted were made open to all races including the Kenyan highlands.
  
• Farms were destroyed which led to food shortage in the area. There was massive destruction of the food stores, granaries and burning of fields and yet people were confined in camps and reserves. These became congested and over crowded with no land for agriculture. The political instability destabilized the agricultural development in Kenya.
• The war was costly to both Britain and Kenya. Britain. For example it’s estimated that the British Government spent over 50million pounds on buying auxiliary weapons and financing the war. In addition there was loss of business and therefore money since trade was paralyzed. Administrative centers, churches, farm machinery worth millions of pounds were also destroyed.
  
• The colonial administration was forced to with draw the foreign labour policy and many Kenyans began looking for jobs in their own country reducing the Asian domination of the commercial and retail sectors.
  
• The removal of Kikuyu leaders gave an opportunity to other leaders to rise up, example, Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga etc. These worked to sensitize the Africans to fight on and intensify the massive destruction of property that belonged to the British, Asian retail shops were frequently looted. This created economic pain that forced the British subdue to the African cry for independence by promising quick constitutional transformation.
• The whites accepted that a multi-racial society was the only solution and each race had to accept peaceful existence with one another. Equality of races was witnessed in schools, agriculture and government especially the ministerial ranks.  The exclusive white occupation and settlement of Kenya highlands was abolished. In this respect the Mau Mau achieved the objective of its leaders i.e. Equal treatment of races.
• Mau Mau rebellion affected the settlement patterns of the kikuyu:  Small and protected villages were created by the government as a means of separating civilians from guerillas (fighters).A total of 80,000 Kikuyu men, women and children were confined in detention camps. The 1952 state of emergency forced the kikuyu to live in the protected villages together instead of the formerly scattered settlement. This later enabled easy provision of schools, health services, and market services to the people.
• It led to the release of political prisoners .For instance in August 1961 Mzee Jomo Kenyatta was released, elected to Legislative Assembly and made president of Kenya African  National Union (KANU).Similarly, 173 prisoners who were released by rebels during the height of the Mau Mau uprising.
  
• Increased Africanisation of Kenya’s educational system, Africans were allowed to access good quality education similar to that of the white settlers. Many were admitted in public schools, more schools for the African children were constructed even in the rural areas. Further still African children were given priority on scholarship awarded by the government which never happened before.

In conclusion, the British were quick to hand over power to Africans i.e. Ghana 1957, Tanganyika (Tanzania) 9/12/1961, Uganda 9/10/1962, Kenya 12/12/1963. This was done so as to avoid worse embarrassment and bloodshed as the case was with the Mau Mau in Kenya.

THE EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN EAST AFRICAN NATIONS 1900 - 1963
                     Learners' activities

Activity one
Role play
Divide the class into groups and ask them to act out the roles of the following:-
(i)         Nationalists like Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, General China and Tom Mboya.
(ii)        The Ex-service men from the Second World War
(iii)       The Kikuyu whose land was alienated (taken away)
(iv)    British administrators in Kenya
Questions for learners

1. What skills have you acquired from acting out the above roles?

1. How can the skills mentioned above be applicable in today’s life situation?

Activity two
At the end of the topic, assign the class to do the following:-

1. Guide them to describe a crisis from their own experience and perspective.
2. Task them to suggest the possible causes of the above crises and to

suggest various ways of addressing different crises facing Uganda
Activity three
Organize a class debate on the following motion:
“THE MAU -MAU UPRISING OF 1952-60 WAS A BLESSING IN DISGUISE”.
Write an article for the New vision about the Mau Mau uprising of 1952-60

History Ngoni Migration

http://www.elateafrica.org/elate/history/ngoni/ngonimigrationintro.html
THE NGONI MIGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENT IN EAST AFRICA

MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF THE NGONI INTO EAST AFRICA

• They began their movement from South – East Africa in Northern Zululand under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820.
• The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last major movement of Bantu people into East Africa.
• There were 3 groups of the Ngoni in East Africa i.e. the Ngoni Tuta, the Ngoni Gwangara and the Ngoni Maseko.
• They then crossed River Zambezi and River Limpopo and moved northwards in search of new areas.
• Later in 1835, they divided into two groups. One group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at UFIPA in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds of cattle around.
• Zwagendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the Fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwagendaba died here in about 1845, and his followers  splint up into five sections. Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi, while the other two, i.e , the Tuta and Gwangara sections remained at Ufipa.
• Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea.  When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa ngoni disagreed and plit in to five groups.
• Two groups remained in East Africa,i.e Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni
• Three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved back to Zambia.
• The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and clashing with the Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika. They disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji.In the 1850s they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at Kahama South of Lake Victoria.
• The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to
  Songea    where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the
  Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860s.
• Some of the Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became known as the Mbunga.
• Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru.
• From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling in Southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni migration, which started around 1820’s, had ended by the year 1860s.

MAP SHOWING NGONI MOVEMENTS

 

WHY WERE THE NGONI SUCCESSFUL IN DEFEATING / CONQUERING THE PEOPLE OF EAST AFRICA.

• The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong. On their way they absorbed or fought off the people they encountered, capturing young men for warriors and young women for wives.
• They had good military organization with age-regiments called “impis”. (strong army)
• The Ngoni had a large, well-trained and disciplined army. They were grouped in age-regiments which were maintained for long periods. The Ngoni did not cultivate but rather lived by plundering from others. This enabled them to have a standing army always ready for battle.
  They had superior weapons such as the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and big cowhide shields, which only left a soldier’s face exposed to the enemy, protected the warriors. Instead of the long-throwing spears which had to be thrown one by one, the Ngoni adopted short-stabbing spears and clubs known as Assegai, copied from Shaka the Zulu.
                             
  On the other hand their enemies used long –throwing spear. They used these for close hand to hand combat, and the warriors could be protected by large cow-hide shields which left only a warrior’s face exposed to the enemy.
• They had superior military tactics such as the cow horn method (semi-circle), which was unfamiliar in E. Africa. They fought in organized age-regiments and could attack their enemies using the cow-horn formation. They also chose clear open spaces for fighting and liked attacking their enemies by night.
• They met small and fragmented societies, which were unable to challenge their military organization. Slave trade had undermined most of the communities of Southern Tanzania.
• The Ngoni were successful due to their determination. They were determined to conquer and obtain places for settlement. This was due to the fact that they were already being chased away from their homeland, and their only alternative was to get determined and fight any people they came across.
• The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much résistance. The Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak and lived in small groups, which could not resist/challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni invasions.
• Disunity among the East African people living in isolated societies, made it easy for the Ngoni to defeat them. The inhabitants were living in isolated societies which made it easy for the Ngoni to defeat them.
• The Ngoni were fully united under their commanders. They were successful because of their unity and solidarity. They mixed freely with the non-Ngoni speaking people.
• They had strong military leaders e.g. Zwangendaba, Induna and Maputo who were able to unite and command the Ngoni.
• Applied the scorched earth policy hence taking people unaware. They burnt and destroyed crops.
• They used assimilation policy, i.e. they absorbed the people they defeated. They would force the captured men from other tribes to join them and become Ngoni warriors.
• They also made themselves fearful to their enemies by wearing the skeletons of their victims.

THE NGONI MILITARY ORGANISATION

The Ngoni were a small group of people but were able to make their presence and authority fell by the local people because of their leadership, outstanding military efficiency and their capacity to absorb conquered people into their armies.

Militarily the Ngoni were organized in large standing armies and age regiments; People of the same age trained together, which brought unity and efficiency.

They used the short- stabbing spears called assegai rather than the long- throwing spears which meant that the warriors could attack more effectively at a close range.

They used large cowhide shields, which could not be easily penetrated by spears.

They used the cow horn method of surrounding an enemy and attacking from all sides giving the enemy little chance to escape.

They often fought on their feet and in open areas for easy movement.

They moved in large numbers which helped them to outnumber their enemies who were often caught unaware

They used to absorb and assimilate all conquered people.

EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASIONS IN E. AFRICA

Positive effects

• The Ngoni invasion led to the rise of outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.
• Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed larger political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni e.g. Sangu and Hehe. (re-organization)
• There was formation of new societies (tribes) like the Mbunga.
• The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.
• There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture. e.g Initiation ceremonies where girls were taught sex education and circumcision.
• It led to formation of a larger Ngoni society in E.Africa as they absorbed many people.
• It led to formation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics e.g. Nyamwezi under Mirambo.
• It led to introduction of new weapons e.g. Assegai, cowhides and shields.
• From the Ngoni invasion, people learnt how to get organized from smaller disorganized societies, to well organized bigger political systems. These were to be under the control and leadership of organized, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, the Hehe, e.t.c.
• There were intermarriages between the Ngoni and Nyamwezi,which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous peoples, and an increase in population.

Negative effects

• They caused wide spread loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars, e.g., the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.
• They introduced military organization and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost their superiority e.g. Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re- attacked them.
• Their movement led to widespread devastation, depopulation and displacement of people.
• They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their cattle. (The Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e., it led to the creation of a class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently looted during the wars.
• The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo, Nyunguyamawe to make their empires.
• The Tuta Ngoni, on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between Tabora and Ujiji.
• There was loss of peoples’ language, culture and customs (Detribalisation of people). i.e., The raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder, and hunting for ivory. They included the “ Ruga-ruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief willing to pay them.
• Ngoni disturbance disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting. This included destroying crops and houses by burning. Under such circumstances, crops could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.
• They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and aggression in East Africa.
• The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to get them and sell them.
• It led to increased war-fare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.

Conclusion:

At the end of the 19th century, Germany colonised Tanganyika. The Ngoni were one of the groups that fought hard against the Germans. But in 1907 all the Ngoni chiefs were hanged for fighting. Today the Ngoni have married into the tribes they conquered. It is now difficult to know who is Ngoni and who is not. But their traditions and way of life continue.

Sample Questions

1.a) Who are the Ngoni?

   b) Why did they leave their cradle land?

2 a) Describe the Ngoni movement and settlement in East Africa

b) Why were the Ngoni able to defeat the inhabitants of East Africa 

3. What were the effects of the Ngoni settlement on the people of East Africa

The Ngoni Migration

In twenty years they travelled over a thousand miles.

In 1818 the Nguni started to fight among themselves for land and power. Different people wanted to be in charge. It led to the Zulu Wars. They fought each other for power. The ones that lost the the battles were forced to leave the Zulu lands. This was the start of a long migration to find somewhere else to live.

Zwangendaba was one of the defeated leaders. He fled north after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers started to use the name Ngoni. Over the next 20 years they had to find ways to survive. How could they get food to eat? One way was to steal food and cattle from villages they came across. They killed people who tried to stop them. As you can imagine, they were disliked by the tribes they stole from. None of the other tribes wanted the Ngoni to live near them, so they forced them away. Each time the Ngoni were pushed further and further north. Until, eventually, they reached Southern Tanzania.

Not much was written about the Mfecane. What we know is from the diaries of missionaries and travellers from Europe, and from the stories passed down from generation to generation.

Shaka and the Zulu Wars

It all started with troubles in South Africa. They began at the start of the 19th century, around 1800. At this time the Zulu kingdom was led by a powerful warrior called Shaka (or Tchaka). The Zulus became rich and defeated many other tribes.

ZwangendabaNgoni Fighting Methods

As they moved north they came into conflict. They fought the other groups who were living on the lands they crossed. Because they knew Zulu fighting methods the Ngoni could usually defeat groups that opposed them. The Zulu warriors were well trained. They planned how they were going to fight their battles. Their trick was to try and surround their enemy. They went forward to battle in a horn formation and closed around their enemy. They used assegais,which were short stabbing spears and they were trained in man-to-man fighting. Most other tribes used throwing spears. Often the Ngoni would make a mock charge, get their opponents to throw their spears and then stab them with their assegais. After the battles they would force the young men to join their army and take young girls for wives. Other people, including the old people, were often killed.

The Ngoni specialised in fighting. That was all they knew. They could not produce their own food. They had to keep moving to find new villages they could plunder. The king of the Fipa people, who lived in that area, made peace with the Ngoni. This saved his kingdom from being destroyed. Zwangendaba built his own capital called Mapupo, which means "dreams". For two more years they raided neighbouring people, the Sukuma and Msafwa, to get food and cattle. Then they settled down with their animals and families, and started to grow crops.

Break up of the Ngoni

Zwangendaba died in Mapupo in 1845. He was buried in an ox hide at Chapota, near the Nyinaluzi River. He fled from the Zulu Wars in South Africa. But he spent the rest of his life fighting other tribes for survival. He was a great warrior and leader.

After Zwangendaba's death his family fought over who should succeed him. His group divided in two. Then each of these groups split up. In the end there were 5 separate groups. Three went back to cattle raiding, in Malawi and Zambia. Two groups went north as far as Lake Victoria. There they found Arabs who were taking local people as slaves.

Effects of the Ngoni migration and the Mkecane

The Ngoni migration and mfecane caused trouble for 20 years, in central and east Africa. Thousands of people were killed by the Ngoni. Villages were destroyed and people were forced offtheir land. Many of them starved due to the lack of food.

The main problem was that the Ngoni knew only one way of life and that was fighting. The only way they could feed themselves was to plunder and kill. They even sold many of the people they captured to slave traders. This caused more misery throughout East Africa.

Eventually the groups the Ngoni fought banded together for protection. One of the Sangu chieftains, Mwakawangu, united the people to defeat the Ngoni invaders. This gave the Sangu control of the rich, farming area of the Southern Highlands. Other groups also realised that they had to be strong to protect their livelihoods.

TASK 1: Ngoni Time Line

Make a list of the important dates between 1800 and 1845 and write down what happened at each date:

Ngoni time line

1800 Shaka ruled the Zulu kingdom in South Africa

1818 The Zulu Wars
1819

TASK 2: The Story of a Ngoni Warrior

Imagine you were a young warrior with Zangendaba.

You had been defeated in the Zulu wars and forced to leave your home.

Write a story to describe how you think you would have:

• felt on your long journey of 1000 miles from the Zulu lands of South Africa to Southern Tanzania
• what problems you would have faced and what dangers?
• what was your daily life like and how did you survive?
• why would you have been happy to settle down after 20 years of fighting and walking?
• what you thought of your new home in Southern Tanzania, where there was good land and food and peace at last!

The Zulu and the Mfecane

The Zulu

The Zulu peoples were an important tribe in South Africa in the late 18th century (around 1790). They lived around the areas called Natal today. There were many small groups of Nguni, which was the old name for the Zulu. The groups lived separately and were not organised under one leader.

The Zulu were cattle herders but they also grew some crops. They came into contact with Portuguese farmers living in Mozambique. The Portuguese grew maize, which they brought to Africa from the Americas. Maize was a good crop to grow, because it produced more food from the same area of land. The Zulu also started to grow maize. This gave them more food and allowed Zululand to support more people. The Zulu became better fed and stronger and their population increased greatly.

Shaka Zulu

Shaka Zulu was the leader of one of the smaller Zulu chiefdoms. Because there was plenty of food he was able to have an army. The food for the warriors was provided by others. This allowed them to be a full-time army. They developed better weapons. One of these was the assegai, a short stabbing spear. The assegai was feared by enemies. Using his well-trained warriors Shaka took over neighbouring lands.

The Tribute System

He force other tribes to pay him tributes in exchange for protection. The tributes were gifts. They included cattle, furs, feathers, and carved wooden sculptures. He took control of all the precious metals. At this time they were copper and brass. The metal was used to make wooden clubs stronger. It was also used for ornaments, like neck rings and armbands. The more of these you had, the greater your importance in the tribe.

Drought and Crop Failure

The problems for the Zulu started after 1800. By then most of the good land was being used. As the population grew, the extra people had to fight for land in order to survive. Things were made worse by 10 years with much less rain. The period of drought meant that crops failed. This led to food shortages.

The Zulu Wars

The Zulu started to fight among themselves for land and water. This led to the Zulu Wars from about 1815 to 1820. Many people were killed and many others were forced off the land. The survivors had to move out of Zululand.

The Mfecane

This led to the great migration called the "Mfecane", which meant the "great scattering" . The Mfecane lasted from 1815 to 1840. The people could not move south, because the Dutch settlers had lived there since the 17th century. They could not move east because Portuguese farmers were there and there were also slave traders. So they moved north toward East Africa.

Zangendaba led the Ngoni group that made their way north as far as Southern Tanzania. This was what we now call the Ngoni migration.

TASK 1: Notes and pictures

Make some notes and pictures to explain:

1. Why the Zulu became important at the start of the 19th century.

2. Why they started to fight among themsleves in the Zulu Wars.

The Ngoni Migration

Do this when you have studied the whole topic of the Ngoni migration.

Make a list of the reasons why the Ngoni migrated from South Africa to Southern Tanzania.

What were the things that caused them to leave South Africa.

Why were they happy to settle in Southern Tanzania 20 years later?

The Ngoni and the Zulu

(1) Where the Ngoni live

The Wagoni are Bantu people. They live in south-west Tanzania.

They live in over 100 villages around the town of Songea.

(2) Their Zulu origins

The Wagoni have a strong story-telling tradition. Their elders tell stories about the tribe to the younger generation.

They are called "Hearing Tales". They are repeated often so the young can learn the stories. They then pass them on to their children.

This is how the history of the tribe is passed on from one generation to the next.

According to these "Hearing Tales" the Ngoni believe that the tribe is related to the Zulu.

Their stories tell of how they migrated to Tanzania from South Africa, from the area between Natal and Swaziland.

There are 12 branches of the Ngoni tribe. Other groups are in Northern Malawi, Eastern Zambia, Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

(3) How the Ngoni are like the Zulu

The Ngoni in Southern Tanzania have a lot in common with other Ngoni groups and with the Zulu of South Africa.

1. Settlements. Their villages have a similar design.

Ngoni villages are built around the cattle enclosure. This is called a kraal. It is made from thorn bushes, to keep out wild animals. Cattle are the Ngoni's wealth. When they eat cow's meat they believe they are sharing with their dead ancestors.

The important buildings in a Ngoni village are the houses of the clan head, his chief wife and the hut for the boys. In the boys' hut they are trained in the Ngoni traditions. They also learn to hunt.

There is a separate area where the men of the village talk. The huts of other people are spread around the kraal. You can see from this that protecting the cattle is very important to the Ngoni. They also have some fields where they grow food crops. This settlement pattern is found in all the Ngoni groups as well as in traditional Zulu society. Below is a picture of the Ngoni men sitting inside the kraal.

2. Customs and rituals. As well as having similar settlements the Ngoni and the Zulu had similar customs and rituals.

a. Girls had initiation ceremonies where they are given sex education, taught family planning and house management.

b. Boys had similar circumcision ceremonies and they were taught to hunt, other skills, tribal beliefs and some were taught witchcraft.

c. Both boys and girls were taught the arts of painting, modelling and crafts.

d. The groups had similar traditional dances, which date back to their warrior past.

3. Language. They share many common words in their languages.

(But the languages of each group have merged with the languages of the people they live near, so they cannot any longer speak to each other in a common Ngoni language.)

4. Ngoni and Nguni. The Zulu belong to a group of tribes that are called the "Nguni" in South Africa. This is a very similar name to Ngoni, and another reason why many Ngoni believe they are related to the Zulu.

Please Note: The way of life of the Ngoni in East Africa and the Zulu of South Africa are similar. They could be related to the Zulu. On the other hand, they may have just picked up their customs after being conquered by the Zulu.

QUESTION

Do you believe that the Ngoni are related to the Zulu? Explain why.

LEARNERS' ACTIVITIES

Activity one

Write a story about the course of the Ngoni migration and settlement on a piece of paper. Divide the class into groups and distribute the written story amongst them.  After this story, assign them the following duties;

1. Task learners to draw a map of East Africa.
2. To locate the different relevant physical features e.g. lakes and rivers on the map.
3. Use arrows to show the movements of the Ngoni to E. Africa
4. Shade with different colours the areas where they settled.

Activity two

• Organise Shaka Zulu’s tape and show it to the learners.
• Guide them to identify reasons in the video that forced the Ngoni to move from their original homeland.
• Task them to suggest reasons that cause people to move from one area to another.
• Ask them if their families have ever shifted to another place and the reasons why plus the effects.
• Ask them the likely economic benefits that result from such movements and settlements.